Computer Knowledge: About Network Topology's in Computers for Competitive Exams

Network Topology's ( Mesh, Star and Tree Topology's)

Mesh Topology: 
It is also known as completely interconnected topology. In mesh topology, every node has a dedicated point to point link to every other node. It provides a bi-directional link between each possible node. This type of network topology contains at least two nodes with two or more paths between them. Mesh topology is robust because the failure of any one computer does not bring down the entire network.

Advantages of Mesh Topology are:

• Excellent for long distance networking.
• Communication possible through the alternate route, if one path is busy.

Disadvantage of Mesh Topology are:

• Long wire or cable length, hence increase in the cost of installation and maintenance.

Star Topology:
In this network topology, the peripheral nodes are connected to a central node, which rebroadcasts all transmissions received from any peripheral node to all peripheral nodes across the network, including the originating node.If the central hub fails, then whole network fails. The protocols used in star topology are Ethernet, Token Ring and Local Talk. A star network can be expanded by placing another star hub.

Advantages of Star Topology are:

• Installation of star topology is very easy as all the nodes are directly connected to the central node or server.
• Easy to detect faults and remove it.
• Failure of single system will not bring down the entire network.
• Allows several types of cables in same network.

Disadvantages of Star Topology are:

• Requires more cable length than bus topology.
• If hub or server fails, the entire network will be disabled.
• Difficult to expand, as the new node has to connect all the way to central node.

Tree Topology: 
This is a network topology in which nodes are arranged as a tree. The function of the central node in this topology may be distributed. A tree topology is an extension and variation of star topology. Its basic structure is like an inverted tree, where the root acts as a server. It allows more devices to be attached to a single hub.

Advantages of Tree Topology are:

• The tree topology simulates hierarchical flow of data. So, it is suitable for applications where hierarchical flow of data and control is required.
• We can easily extend the network.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology are:

• Long cable are required.
• There are dependencies on the root node.
• If the central hub fails, the entire system breaks down.

Computer Knowledge: Network Topology's for Competitive Exams

Network Topology's ( Bus - Ring)

Network Topology: The term "Topology" refers to the way a network is laid out, either physically or logically. Topology can be referred as the geometric arrangement of a computer system. Each computer system in a topology is known as node. Network topology is determined only by the configuration of connections between nodes. In a fully connected network with n nodes, there are n(n-1)/2 direct links.

Bus Topology:

A bus topology is such that there is a single line to which all nodes connected. It is usually used when a network installation is small, simple or temporary. In bus topology, all the network components are connected with a same (single) line. Ethernet is commonly well protocol in networks connected by bus topology.

Advantages of Bus topology are:

• All the nodes are connected directly, so very short cable length is required.
• The architecture is very simple and linear.
• Bus topology can be extended easily on either sides.
• The cabling cost of bus topology is less and requires the least amount of cable to connect computers.

Disadvantages of Bus topology are:

• Diagnosis of fault is difficult. It is difficult to find the problem, if any of the node is facing problem in data communication.
• In case of any fault in data transmission, fault isolation is very difficult. We have check the entire network to find the fault.
• Becomes slow which increase in number of nodes.
• The entire network shuts down if there is an error occurs in the main cable.

Ring or Circular Topology

Ring topology is used in high-performance network where large band with is necessary. The protocols used to implement ring topology are Token Ring and Fibre Distributed Data Interface (FDDI). In ring topology, data is transmitted in form of Token over a network. After passing through each node, the data returns to the sending node.

Advantages of ring or circular topology are:

• Short cable length is required.
• Suitable for optical fibre as the data flow in one direction.

Disadvantages of ring or circular topology are;

• In ring topology, each node is connected in a circular way, with its two neighbouring nodes, so when there is transmission problem anywhere in the network, entire network stops functioning.
• Fault diagnosis is very difficult in a network formed using ring topology.
• In ring topology, every node has exactly two branches connected to it, the ring is broken and cannot work if one of the nodes on the ring fails.
• Failure of single computer affects the whole network.
• Adding or removing the computer disturbs whole network activity.

Note:- We will discuss remaining Three Topology's in coming posts. Happy Reading.....

Computer Knowledge: All about Network Devices for Competitive Exams

Comnputer Knowledge: Network Devices

Network devices are required to amplify the signal to restore the original strength of signal and to provide an interface to connect multiple computers in a network. There are many types of network devices used in networking. Some of them are described below.

1) Repeater: A repeater is a device that operates only on the physical layer of OSI model. Repeaters have two ports and can connect two segments of a LAN. It amplifies the fable signals when they are transported over a long distance so that the signal can be as strong as the original signal. A repeater boosts the signal back to its correct level.

2) Gateway: A gateway is an interconnecting device, which joins two different network protocols together. It holds the information from a website temporarily, so that the repeated access to same website or web page could be directed to the proxy server instead of actual web server. Thus helps in reducing the traffic load.The gateway is a node in a network which serves as a proxy server and a firewall system and prevents the unauthorised access. They are also known as protocol converters. It accepts packet formatted for one protocol and converts the formatted packet into another protocol.


3) Hub: Hub is like a repeater with multiple ports used to connect the network channels. It acts as a centralised connection to several computers with the central node or sever. When a hub receives a packet of data at one of its ports from a network channel, it transmits the packet to all of its ports to all other network channel.


4) Switch: Switch forwards a data packet to a specific route by establishing a temporary connection between the source and the destination. It is a small hardware device that joins multiple computer together within one LAN. Switches work on the data link layer of the OSI model. It helps to reduce overall network traffic. There is a vast difference between switch and a hub. A hub forwards each information packet (data) to all the hub ports, while a switch forwards each incoming packet to the specified recipient.

5) Router: Router is a hardware device which is designed to take incoming packets, analyse the packets, moving the packets to another network, converting the packets to another network interface, dropping the packets, directing packets to the appropriate locations etc.

6) Modem: Modem is a device that converts digital signal to analog signal (modulator) at the sender's site and converts back analog signal to digital signal (demoulator) at the receiver's end, in order to make communication possible via telephone lines. A MODEM is always placed between a telephone line and a computer.

7) RJ11 Connector: RJ11 connector is the typical connector used on two pair, four wire handset wiring. RJ means "Registered Jack", the physical connector interface that is most often utilised for handset wire terminals. RJ11 connector wiring comes in two standard assortments -UTP or Unshielded Twisted Pair and flat-satin cable or the untwisted. RJ11 connectors are used to terminate phone lines, and are typically deployed with single line POTS (Plain Old Telephone Services) telephone jacks.

Computer Knowledge: About Wireless Technology in Data Communication for IBPS, SBI and Other Competitive Exams

Unguided Media ( Wireless Technology)

It is the transfer of information over a distance without the use of enhanced electrical conductors or wires. When the computers in a network are interconnected and data is transmitted through waves, then they are said to be connected through unguided media. Some commonly used unguided media of transmission are;

1) Radiowave Transmission:
When two terminals communicate by using radio frequencies then such type of communication is known as radio-wave transmission. This transmission is also known as Radio Frequency (RF) transmission. These are omnidirectional. Radiowaves are propagate in the sky mode, can travel long distances. Each computer attaches to an antenna that can both send and receive radio transmission.

Radiowave transmission setup has two parts:

• Transmitter: The devices which transmit signals, are termed as transmitter.
• Receiver: The devices which received signals, are termed as receiver.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Radiowaves
Advantages		Disadvantages
1	Cheaper than wired network	Insecure communication can be easily taped.
2	Provides Mobility	It is affected by the weather conditions such as rain, storms, thunder, etc.
3	Easy to use over difficult terrain.

2) Microwave Transmission:

Microwaves are electromagnetic waves having frequencies range from 0.3 to 300 GHz. Microwaves are unidirectional. Microwaves have a higher frequency than that of radiowaves. Microwaves is one of the fastest media for data transmission over communication channel. They can be aimed at a single direction instead of broadcasting in all direction. Microwaves antenna placed on the top of buildings. It consists series of stations approx 30 miles apart. It is used in cellular network and television broadcasting.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Microwaves
Advantages		Disadvantages
1	Cheaper than digging trenches for laying cables and using repeaters.	Insecure communication, as the taping of microwaves is easy.
2	Using microwaves, communication is possible even in difficult terrains.	It is affected by the weather conditions such as rain, thunder, storm etc.,
3		Cost of maintenance, implementation and design is high.

3) Satellite Communication:

The communication across longer distances can be provided by combining radio frequency transmission with satellites. It works over a long distance and fast communication. Satellite communication amplifies signal received from one Earth station, which can be located many thousand of miles away. It is used for communications to ships, vehicles, planes and handheld terminals.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Satellite   Communication
Advantages		Disadvantages
1	It covers a vast range of area.	It is very costly. So, it is preferred to use personal or low budget communication.
2	The wired communication is almost impossible and too costly to use across the continents where the satellite communication proves to be the best alternative.	There is atmospheric loss of transmitted signals.
3	It is very useful in television transmission.

4) Infrared Wave Transmission:

Infra red waves are the high frequency waves used for short-range communication. These waves do not pass through the solid-objects. They are mainly used in TV remote, wireless speakers.

5) Bluetooth

It is a wireless technology used for exchanging data over short distance to create a Personal Area Network (PAN) or piconet invented by Erreiscon in 1994.

Marketing Knowledge: Importance of Product Life Cycle for IBPS, SBI and Other Competitive Exams

Importance of Product Life Cycle & Product Policy Decision

Importance of a Product life cycle 

Following are the importance of product life cycle;

1) Life of a Product is Limited:

According to this concept, the product will die out over a period of time irrespective of the fact that the product had made tremendous progress during the post. Knowing this fact, management always try to improve its existing product or to develop a new product.

2) Estimation of Profits:

The quantum and rate of profits increase or decrease with the quantum of turn over. In introductory stage, profits are negligible, then they go up and after sometime they begin to fall and gradually they move to nil. Thus, the management can well predict the firm's profits in different stages of the life cycle of the product.

3) Marketing Programme:

Different policies, procedures and strategies are followed in the different stages of the life cycle of a product. So, management can prepare the marketing programmes accordingly and may get success.

Importance of Product Life Cycle also includes

• Help in promotional decision.
• Help in product control.
• Facilitates sales forecasting.

Product Related Policy Decision

Decisions taken by the producers on the given three aspects;

1) Product Item: A detailed description of a product in a list of a producer or seller is called product item.

2) Product Line: It means group of product, which are closely related to each other for Ex:- Lakme, Maybline, etc. In product line decision, the marketer has to make decision regarding the product line length which means the number of product in the product line.

3) Product Mix: It means the complete set of product line produced and bold by the company. Ex:- Nestle produces mill powder, maggie, ghee, etc.

Mathematics: Tips for Solving Ranking Test Problems in Competitive Exams

Tips to Solve Ranking Test Problems

The process of determining the position or place of a person or a thing on the basis of comparison or relative position of other person or things is called ranking. In this type of questions, relative positions or ranking of different groups of persons or objects is given. Students are required to establish the ranking or position of other individuals in the same group with respect to one another.

The given information are scattered and puzzled. You have to arrange them systematically and then given the answer. How to arrange the informations has been discussed in the previous chapter.

Practice Question:

1) In a row of girls, "Gauri" is 11th from each end. How many girls are there in the row ?

Solution:- Gauri's rank is 11th from each end means she is 11th from the right end and also from the left end. Since, she is 11th from each end, if can be said. There are 10 girls on each side of Gauri.

 

   10                10

|------------|-------------|

            Gauri

Total number of girls = 10 + Gauri + 10 = 21.

This question can be solved by formula also, 

Total number of girls = (Rank from left) + (Rank from right) -1 

                                = 11 + 11 -1 = 21.

Formulas for Solving Ranking Problems in Row (or) in a Class

Formula 1:- 

Total number of persons is a row (or) class = (Rank of a person from upper end or left end) + (Rank of that person from lower or right end) -1

Formula 2:- 

Rank of a person from upper or left end = (Total number of persons in row ) - (Rank of that person from lower or right end) + 1

Formula 3:- 

Rank of a person from lower or right end = (Total number of persons in row ) - (Rank of that person from upper or left end) + 1

Sample Problem:

1) In a class of 52 students, Shaker's rank is 14th from the top. What is his rank from the bottom?

 Solution:- By Formula;

         

    Shaker's rank from the bottom = (Total number of students in class) - (Shaker's rank from the top) + 1

                                                       = 52 - 14 + 1= 53 - 14 = 39th

Second Method:

Total number of students is 52 in the class. Shaker's rank is 14th from the top means there are 13 students before him.

           

            13                       (x)

|-------------------|---------------------|

                    Shaker's

Total number of students = 52 = 13 + 1 + x = 14 + x

                                          52 = 14 + x

                                           x = 52 - 14 = 38

Since, 38 students are below Shaker's means his rank is 39th from the bottom

Logical Reasoning: Tips for Solving Analogy Problems in Competitive Exams

Logical Reasoning : Analogy Part

Analogy means similarity or bearing a resemblance. The question based on analogy, you are given a pair of words, letters or numbers having certain relationship. From the alternatives provided, you have to select the choice that best matches the relationship existing the between the first two word, letters or numbers. The given pair of words, letters or numbers is set off by a colon or ratio sign (:) signifying that word X is related to word Y. The double colon (: :) that separates the given pair stands for " in the same way".

     There are many ways of establishing a relationship. So, far as relationship among letters are concerned, facts stated in coding and decoding chapter is applied by and large. But word relationship can be established in following ways are cause and effect, part to whole, synonym, antonym, degree of intensity, type and characteristic, producer and product, worker and tool and class and species etc.,

In dealing with analogy questions, the following rules should be observed:

• ( i ) Analyse the relationship between the question pair i.e., the pair before double colon ( : : ).
• ( ii ) Look for the pair of words among the answer choices with a similar relationship.
• ( iii ) If more than one answer choice seems to fit, re-examine the relation in the question pair.
• ( iv ) Eliminate answer that do not appear to be the best.
• ( v ) Parts of speech must be the same in the related words.

Sample Problems:

1) Lion : Cub : : ? : ?

1. Dog : Aviary
2. Snake : Stable
3. Cat : Dog
4. Sheep : Lamb

Solution:- The young one of Lion is called Cub that means the relationship of Animal and young one. The same relationship follows in option (D) i.e., Lamb is the young one of Sheep.

Ans: - Choice (D) Sheep : Lamp

2) Angle : Radian : : ? : ?

1. Cattle : Herd
2. Odometer : Speed
3. Dearth : Scarcity
4. Area : Hectares

Solution: - As, we know Angle is a quantity and is measured in Radians, so it is quantity-unit relationship. Similarly, Area is measured in Hectares.

Ans:- Choice (D) Area : Hectares

3) Ostrich : Bird : ? : ?

1. Mammal : Panther
2. Bleat : Lambs
3. Pomfret : Fish
4. Lion Cub

Soution:- Ostrich is a group member of Birds. That means, here is a group-member relationship. Similarly, Pomfert is a group member of Fishes.

Ans:- Choice (C) Pomfert : Fish

4) MF : NG : : LK : ?

1. ML
2. NL
3. LM
4. KL

Solution:-  M F → N G

                  M + 1= N

                  F + 1 = G  Similarly L K → M L

Ans:- Choice ( A) ML

Computer Knowledge: Data Communication in Networks for IBPS, SBI and Other Competitive Exams

Data Communication in Networks

Communication:

The term communication means sending or receiving information. When we communicate, we share information or data. This sharing can be local or remote access. A communication system can be defined as the collection of hardware and software that facilitates inter system exchange information between different devices.

Data Communication

Data communication is the exchange of data between two devices using some form of transmission media. It includes the transfer of data or information and the method of preservation of data during the transfer process. This data transfer(communication) is done between a centralised computer and remote terminals or between two or more computer centres over established communication links. Data is transferred from one place to another in the form of signals.

There are three type of signals:

1) Digital Signal: In digital signal, data is transmitted in the electronic form of data. i.e., Binary digits ( 0 or 1).

2) Analog Signal: In analog signal, data is transmitted in the form of radio waves like in telephone line.

3) Hybrid Signal: Hybrid signals have properties of both analog signal and digital signal.

Types of Communication Channels:

The communication channel refers to the direction of signal flow between two linked devices.

1) Simplex Channel: In this channel, the flow of data is always in one direction, with no capability to support response in other direction. This communication is unidirectional. Only one of the communicating devices transmits information and the other can only receive it i.e., Radio, Television, Keyboard, etc.,

2) Half Duplex Channel: In this channel, the data can flow in both directions, but not at a same time. When one device transmits information, then other can only receive at that point of time. Ex:- Walkie-Talkies.

3) Full Duplex Channel: In this channel, the flow of data is in both directions at a time i.e., both stations can transmit and receive information simultaneously. Ex:- Wireless handset (mobile phones)

Communication Media:

Communication media of a network refer to the transmission media or the connecting media used in the network. It can be broadly defined as anything that can carry information from a source to destination. It refers to the physical media through which communication signals can be transmitted from one point to another.

Marketing Knowledge: Product Life Cycle (PLC) and Stages in Product Life Cycle

Production Life Cycle (PLC) and Stages in Product Life Cycle

Product Life Cycle (PLC):

The Product Life Cycle (PLC) is the life span of the product from the stage of product development to testing, branding, promotion and marketing. For some products this also involves the stage of decline and perhaps regeneration.

Characteristics of Product Life Cycle:

The life cycle of each product begins with its introduction in the market and passes through the phases of market development, maturity, becomes leader and ultimately declines. The product production speed of movement through various stages of life cycle, cannot be same for all kind of products. With the decrease in profits in the maturity stage, changes such as research and development, production pattern, marketing and financial control activities, etc become essential.

Stages in Product Life Cycle:

Stage 1:
Market Introduction: In this stage, some innovative products may be launched. Innovation means product designing, new ideas and creativity. This stage is most expensive for companies. The cost for products like research, development, testing and marketing is high.

Stage 2:
Market Growth: This stage is typically characterised by a strong growth in sales and profits. As the company can start to benefit from economies of scale in production, the overall profit margins will increase. Price stabilises or falls slightly, depending on how fast demand increases.

Stage 3:
Market Maturity: In this stage sales will continue grow early of maturity, but at a lower rate than expected growth phase. At this time sales reaches the peak. This period may stands for extended of time. This maturity phase of the life cycle is longest stage for most products.

Stage 4:
Market Saturation:  In this stage, the amount of product provided in a market has been maximised in the current state of market place and selling price has been constant. At the point of saturation, further growth can only be achieved through product improvements, market share gains or a rise in overall consumer demand.

Stage 5:
Market Decline: This is the last stage of Product Life Cycle (PLC). At this stage, there is  a down turn in the market. Profit margins touch a low level, competition becomes severe and customers start using newer and better products.

Marketing Knowledge: Marketing Planning and Its Importance in Marketing for IBPS, SBI and Other Competitive Exams

Marketing Planning and Its Importance in Marketing 

Classification of Marketing Planning

Marketing planning activities can be divided into three parts;

1) Long-Term Planning:
It means planning for a period of more than one year. It involves the development of basic objectives and the determination of fundamental policies to guide future efforts of an enterprise. Generally, this type of planning relates to the planning of a new product, product diversification, expansion of product line. etc.,

2) Short-Term Planning:
It is the planning of marketing activities for a period of less than one year. This type of planning is the liability of medium level of management. The problems to be dealt by this planning are adjustment in the prices of products to face the competition, adjustment in the quantity of production to meet the changes in demand.

3) Adhoc Planning:
It is the planning of activities to be performed in the future. Adhoc planning is not a regular and systematic form of planning and it is the solution to the problems arising in the actual performance of marketing activities. Target consumers remains at the centre of any marketing process.


Importance of Marketing Planning 

It prepares planned strategies and programmes for the future so that future uncertainties may be minimised and the objectives of the enterprise may successfully be achieved. The objectives of the enterprise are clarified by marketing planning and clearly explained to all the concerned employees of the enterprise. It helps in co-ordination all the managerial activities of the enterprise. It increases the organisational efficiency by making decision-making process quick and by defining individual duties, right and liabilities of all the employees of the enterprise. It checks all unnecessary expenses and hence leads to economy in the operations of enterprise. It is helpful in controlling functions. It stresses upon the achievement of pre- determined objectives of the enterprise through maximum satisfaction to the consumers.

Objectives of Marketing Planning

• To formulate marketing plans on the basis of sales forecasting. 
• To minimise future uncertainties as for as possible. 
• To co-ordinate the activities not only of its own department but it helps in coordinating the activities of all the departments of the enterprise.
• It helps in controlling the activities of all the departments of the enterprise.
• It makes a difference between the problems of key nature and that of routine nature.
• It helps in checking all the wastages in the enterprise.
• It is helpful in maintaining healthy competition within enterprise.
• Helpful in increasing the efficiency of employees.

Computer Knowledge: Architecture of DBMS, Advantages and Disadvantages of DBMS for Competitive Exams

Architecture of DBMS 

The architecture of a database system provides a general framework for database system. This means that the system does not provide all the details of the data, rather it hides the details of how the data are stored and maintained.

The Architecture is divided into three levels;

1) Physical Level: It is the lowest level of data abstraction that deals with the physical representation of the database on the computer. It is also known as internal level. It defines how the data are actually stored and organised on the storage medium.

2) Logical Level: It is the overall view of the database and includes all the information that is going to be represented in the database. It describes what type of data is stored in the database, the relationship among the data without effecting to the physical level. It is also known as conceptual level.

3) View Level: This is the highest level of data abstraction which describes the interaction between the user and the system. It permits the users to access data in a way that is customised according to their needs, so that the same data cab be seen by different users in different ways, at the same time.

Advantages of DBMS 

1) Reduction in Data Redundancy: The duplication of data refers to data redundancy. DBMS cannot make separate copies of the same data. All the data is kept at a place and different applications refers to data from centrally controlled system.

2) Better Interaction with Users: In DBMS, the availability of up-to-data information improves the data to be access or respond as per user requests.

3) Improvement in Data Security: DBMS can allow the means of access to the database through the authorised channels. To ensure security, DBMS provides security tools i.e., username and password.

4) Maintenance of Data Integrity: Data integrity ensures that the data of database is accurate. In DBMS, data is centralised and used by many users at a time, it is essential to enforce integrity controls.

5) Backup and Recovery: The DBMS supports backup and recovery subsystem that is responsible to recovery data from hardware, software, virus attack and other failures.


Disadvantages of DBMS 

1) Complexity: The provision of the functionality that is expected from a good DBMS makes the DBMS an extremely complex piece of software. Failure to understand the system can lead to bad design decision, which can have serious consequences for an organisation.

2) Cost of Staff Training: Mostly DBMS are often complex systems so the training for user to use the database is required. The organisation has to pay a lot of amount for the training of staff to run the DBMS.

3) Database Failures: In most of the organisations, all data is integrated into a single database. If database is corrupted due to power failure or it is corrupted on the storage media, then our valuable data may be lost or whole system stops.

4) Cost of Maintenance: We need a high speed processor for processing large size of DBMS software. Similarly database software is also very costly. It means we must upgrade the hardware used for database management.

Mathematics: Tips for Solving Simple Equations Problems in Competitive Exams

Tips for Solving Simple Equations Problems 

An equation is a statement where the two sides are equal. In other words, equations are combinations of one or more letters/numbers lying on each side of an "equal to" (=) sign. They are valid or true for certain values of the letters only. The letters in the equation are called the unknowns.

For Example: What number multiplied by 6 gives a product of 18 ?

You may calculate with the help of tables and find out the answer as 3. (you can recall the table of 6 or you can divide 18 by 6 to find out the answer). However, there is another method of finding out that number.

Suppose the number is X.

6 x X = 18 (given in the question)

6X = 18 => X = 18/6

                    X = 3.

Equation are Classified into:

• Polynomial Equations: If f(x) is real or complex polynomial, then f(x) =0 is known as a polynomial equation. 

• Linear Equations in One Variable: These are first degree equations in one unknown. An equation of the form ax + b = 0 where a, b subset of R and a not equal to zero and x is the variable, is called a linear equation in one variable. The value of x which satisfies the given equation, is called its solution.

• Linear Equation in Two Variables: These are first degree equation in two unknowns. An equation of the form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b, c subset of R and a not equal to 0, b not equal to 0 and x, y are variables is called linear equation in two variables. Any pair of values of x and y which satisfy the equation ax + by + c = 0, is called its solution.

• Quadratic Equation: These are second degree equations in one unknown. An equation of the form ax² + bx + c = 0, where a, b, c subset of R and a not equal to 0 is called quadratic equation. Like a first degree equation in x has one value of x satisfying the equation, a quadratic equation in x will have two values of x that satisfy the equation. The value of x that satisfy the equation are called the root of the equation. These roots may be real or imaginary.

Important Points to Remember:

• You can add to or subtract any number or quantity from each side of an equation without upsetting the balance.
• You can multiply or divide both sides of an equation by the same number without upsetting the balance.
• You can transfer any number or quantity from one side of the equation to the other if you change its sign ( + to - ) or ( - to +) when you do so.

Sample Problems:

1) What is the number which, when added to 6, become 15 ?

Sol:-

    You may just count and calculate and find out the answer as 9 (15 - 6 = 9).

     Better you solve the question with the help of an equation.

              Suppose the number is X.

There fore X + 6 = 15.

        Now X = 15 - 6.  = 9

                X = 9.

 

2) Find Y, if ½(3Y = 1) - 1/3(5Y + 2) = Y -1

Sol:-

          ½(3Y + 1) - 1/3(5Y + 2) = Y-1

=> (9Y + 3) - (10Y + 4) = 6Y - 6

=> -Y -1 = 6Y - 6

=> 7Y = 5

=> Y = 5/7

Mathematics: Tips for Solving Direction Sense Problem for Competitive Exams

Tips for Solving Direction Sense Problem

The questions asked from this chapter are based on direction and distance both. In this type of questions, students have to find out the direction or distance, which is covered from the starting point (position) to certain ending point(position). That means students are required to ascertain the final direction or the distance between two points. These questions are asked to test the candidate's ability to trace and follow correctly and sense the direction correctly.

Students are advised to pin-point on a piece of paper the starting-point. Then they should draw lines as directed (indirected) in the question. Thus they will have a diagram (figure) of the movement. It will thus the easy to find direction from the starting point.

According to the above diagram, we can easily understand about the directions. To find out the lowest distance between two points, we use Pythagoras theorem. Direction between North and West is called North-West, the direction between North and East is called North-West similarly we know the South-West and South-East.

If we are walking towards any direction and we have to turn right, then we should turn right or in clock wise direction with 90°. If we have to turn left, then we should turn anti-clockwise direction at 90°.

Sample Problem

1) Ramesh starts from his house and goes to the east. After covering 4 km, he turns to right and covers 2 km. Then he turns to right again and covers 4 km. In which direction now Ramesh is from his house ?

Solution: 

                         Ramesh's house       4 km

                                          ------------------------------┐

                                                                                │2 km

                                                                                │

                                          -------------------------------

                                                      4 km 

The above diagram indicates that he is now in the south from his house.

Marketing Knowledge: Marketing mix and Elements of Marketing Mix for IBPS, SBI and other Competitive Exams

Marketing Mix and Elements in Marketing Mix

Marketing Mix:

Marketing mix is an important concept in modern marketing. It is the crux of marketing process. It refers to the set of actions or tactics, that a company uses to promote its brand or product in the market. It includes almost everything that a firm uses to affect consumer's perceptions favourably towards its products or services, so that the consumer and organisational objectives can be achieved.

However, the 4 P's remain the most popular classification in terms of marketing mix. In 1990, Robert F Lauterborn proposed a 4 C's classification, which is a more consumer-oriented version of the 4 P's.

Elements of Marketing Mix:

The elements or components of marketing mix may be grouped broadly under the following four heads.

• 1) Product
• 2) Price
• 3) Place
• 4) Promotion

1) Product: 

Product refers to the goods and services offered by the organisation for sale to the consumer for a price. In other words, a product is a bundle of utilities consisting of various features and accompanying services.

Product can be broadly classified as follows:

Based on Use, the products can be classified as

i) Consumer Goods: Products that are purchased for personal consumption by the households or ultimate consumers are known as "Consumer Goods". Dresses, auto-mobiles, food, Gold or other jewellery item are all examples of consumer goods. These consumer goods are classified into 3 parts they are

• Convenience Goods
• Shopping Goods
• Speciality Goods

ii) Industrial Goods: These goods are meant for use as inputs in production of other products or provision of some service and include raw materials, machinery, components and operating supplies. These are meant for non-personal and commercial use.

2) Price: 

It is the amount charged for a product or services. In other words, price is the consideration in terms of money paid by consumers for the bundle of benefits, he derives by using the product or service. It is the exchange value of goods and services in terms of money. Price is the only element in the marketing mix of a firm that generates revenue. Rest of them generate only cost. Price and volume of sales together decide the revenue of any business. Various factors that have to be kept in mind while fixing the price are demand for a product, cost involved, consumer's ability to pay, prices charged by competitors for similar products, government restrictions, etc.

3) Place: 

Goods and services are produced to be sold to the consumers. They must be made available to the consumers at a place where they can conveniently make purchase. Place is concerned with various methods of transporting and storing goods and then making available for the customer.Getting the right product, to the right place, at the right time, involves the distributions system and the choice of distribution method depends on a variety of circumstances. Making the products available, it involves a chain of individuals and institutions like distributors, wholesalers and retailers who constitute company's distribution network.

4) Promotion: 

Promotion is an important thing in marketing mix as it refers to a process of advertising, influencing a consumer to make select the product of the company is a big question. Promotion is done through selling, advertising, publicity and sales promotion. It is done mainly with a view to provide information to consumers about the quality, durability, availability and use's of the product.

General Studies: Geography Topic Wind System for Competitive Exams

Wind System

The pressure difference is the major causes of the genesis of the wind system. The air moves from high pressure to low pressure. The slope of pressure from high to low is called pressure gradient, which is also called as barometric slope. The imaginary line joining the points having same pressure is called isobars. The direction of air movement should be perpendicular to the isobars because the direction of pressure gradient is perpendicular to the isobars, but the direction is deviated from the expected one due to Coriolis force caused by the rotation of the Earth.

Thus the factors that control the air motion are

• Pressure gradient
• Rotation of Earth and Coriolis force
• Friction force
• Centrifugal action of wind

The winds blowing parallel to the isobars generally at the height of 600 meters is called Geo-strophic wind.

Wind Directions

The Coriolis force generated due to the rotation of Earth acts as a deflective force to the wind direction. Because of the Coriolis force, all the winds are deflected to the left in the Southern hemisphere with respect to the rotating Earth.This is referred to as Farrel's Law. The Coriolis force is absent along the equator, but increases progressively towards the poles.

Classification of Winds:

Winds are classified into Three types by the direction of wind system, They are

• 1) Primary Movement:  Permanent Winds
• 2) Secondary Movement : These are classified into Three types

                ( i ) Cyclone : Tropical and Temperate, Thunderstorms and Tornadoes

                ( ii ) Anti Cyclone

                ( iii ) Seasonal Wind i.e., Monsoon

• 3) Tertiary Movement: Local Winds

1) Primary Wind Movement:

These winds are include trade wind, westerlies and polar winds.

i) Trade Wind: These are steady currents of air blowing form the sub tropical high pressure belt towards the equatorial low pressure belt. Under the influence of the Coriolis forces they flow from the North-East in the Northeren hemisphere and from South-East in the Southern hemisphere.

ii) Westerlies: The permanent winds blowing from the subtropical high pressure belt to the sub polar low pressure belt in both the hemisphere is called Westerlies. The general direction of the westerlies is South-West to North-West in the Northern hemisphere and North-West to South-East in the Southern hemisphere. The Westerlies become more rigorous in the Southern hemisphere because of the lack of land and dominance of oceans. Their velocity increases Sothward and they become stormy so they are called roaring forties between latitudes 40°. South latitudes, furious fifties at 50° South latitude and shrieking sixties at 60° South latitudes.

iii) Polar Winds: Polar winds blows from polar high pressure belt to sub-polar low pressure belt. They are North-Easterly in Northern hemisphere and South-Easterly in the Southern hemisphere.

2) Secondary Wind Movement: 

Seasonal Winds: The winds, which reverse its direction completely every 6 months is called Seasonal Winds. The best example is Monsoon winds.

i ) Cyclone: Cyclones are the centres of low pressure surrounded by closed isobars having increasing pressure outward and closed air circulation from outside towards the central low pressure in such a way that Air blows inwards in clockwise direction in the Southern hemisphere. Air blows inwards in clockwise direction in the Southern hemisphere.

Cyclones are mainly of two types;

• Tropical Cyclone
• Temperate Cyclone

ii ) Anticyclone: They are the wind system, which has the highest air pressure at the centre and lowest at the outer margins surrounded by circular isobars where wind blows. They are high pressure system and common in subtropical belts and practically absent in the equator region. They are generally associated with rainless fair weather and that's why they are called as weather less phenomena. 

3) Tertiary Movement 

Tertiary Movement is also called Local Winds. Some local winds are mentioned in the below table

Tertiary Movement (Local Winds)
Wind	Nature	Region
Land Breeze	Warm	Land breeze blows from land to sea
Sea Breeze	Cold	Sea breeze blows from sea to land
Chinook (snow eater)	Warm	Rockies (USA and Canada)
Sirocco	Hot	North Africa
Fohn	Warm	Alps/Europe
Khamsin	Hot	Egypt
Blizzard	Cold	Siberian, Canada, USA